Chapter 21 & 22

Chapter 21- Technical Descriptions and Specifications

Technical descriptions explain information that the readers need to use.  Therefore, when your describing the purpose, keep the user in mind.

Purposes and Types of Technical Descriptions- When describing something, you must answer the question what it is and how its used.  When trying to allow the viewer to visual, you might have to answer the questions what does it look like? What is it made of?

• Two types-
• product description- learning how to use a device
• process description- understand the steps of a event

Objectivity in Technical Description

• subjective description- expressing feelings, you created an impression of your subject. 
• objective description- no personal impressions, you focus on observable details
• use precise and informative language- this will allow the readers to visualize better

Elements of a Usable Description

• Clear and limiting title- tells what the document is but doesn't  go into detail 
• Appropriate level of detail and technicality- want to convey a clear picture but don't overstate or understand information.  Know your audience and what level of detail is appropriate. 
• Visuals- use when needed, they can repeat or reinforce the information 
• Clearest descriptive sequence- 
• spatial sequence- this is a physical description used to help the reader visualize, it answers these questions: what does it do? what does it look like? what parts and materials is it made of?
• functional sequence- this type explains how it works.
• chronological sequence- this is used when assembly occurs.  tells step by step what is to be done.

An Outline and Model for Product Description

• an outline is needed when the description is complex
• introduction: general description- tell only the background information that is needed.
• description and function of parts- tells about the parts, tells only the information the reader needs
• summary and operating description- finishes by telling how the parts work to make the whole item function

A Outline for Process Description

• when your audience knows more than you do, discuss the main points, leaving out the details
• when your audience knows less than you do, details and in depth description are key

Specifications- describes the product and the processes

• methods for manufacturing, building, or installing a product
• materials and equipment that will be used
• size, shape, and weight of the product
• specific testing, maintenance, and inspection procedures

specifications address a diverse audience:

• the customer- wants the best product at the best price
• the designer- must translate the customers wishes into the design
• the contractor or manufacturer- who gets to make the design happen
• the supplier- who must get the correct materials
• the workforce- who physically make the design happen
• the inspectors- who evaluate the product

Technical Marketing Literature- designed to sell a product

• brochures
• web pages
• fact sheets
• business letters

Chapter 22- Instructions and Procedures
 

Purpose of Instructional Document- to tell a person how something is done.

• users will have these basic questions-
• why am I doing this?
• how do I do this?
• what materials/ equipment will I need?
• where do I begin?
• what do I do next?
• what could go wrong?
• Therefore the purpose of the instructional document is to answer all these questions and give the user and clear way of completing the task

Formats for Instructional Documents

• Instructional brochures
• manuals
• brief reference cards
• hyper-linked instructions
• online documentation

Faulty Instructions and Legal Liability

• 10% of workers are injured each year on the job, medication procedures could lead to suicide, therefore the instructions must be clear, accurate and complete or people could sue.
• Examples of faulty instructions:
• failure to instruct and caution users in the proper use of a product
• failure to warn against hazards from proper use of a product
• failure to warn against the possible misuses of a product
• failure to explain a product's benefits and risks in language that averages consumers can understand
• failure to convey the extent of risk with forceful language
• failure to display warnings prominently

Elements of Usable Instructions

• Clear and limiting title- tells exactly what its going to explain
• informed content- shows you know what your talking about (if you haven't performed the task then you shouldn't be writing instructions for it.)
• visuals- these might help show people exactly what is to be done
• appropriate level of detail and technicality- need to give them background information, and enough information to let them understand what to do. 
• logically ordered steps- chronological order that tells step by step
• notes and hazard notices- allow them to know what could go wrong, and if something does go wrong what could happen.
• readability- instructions must be understood.  Use direct address, active voice, and imperative mood. use short and logically shaped sentences that are easy to understand

Outline for Instructions

•  introduction- allows the viewers to begin once they have a clear understanding of what is to be done
• body: required steps- give step by step procedure
• conclusion- summarize the major steps, describe the results, give follow-up advice, give troubleshooting advice in case something goes wrong

 

Online Documentation- this cuts the cost of producing and distributing materials.  this allows viewers to search for the information that they need at the time.

Testing the Usability of your Document

• easily locate the information needed
• understand the information immediately
• use the information successfully

Usability testing can be done by:

• qualitative testing: this allows you to see how the readers react to your document
• focus groups- discussion of what is missing, or excessive, what they like and don't like
• protocol analysis- one-to-one interview
• quantitative testing- use a control group and compare success rates

Procedures- different from instructions because they provide rules and guidance for people who usually know how to perform the task .  These are helpful when a certain task needs to be the same across the board.

Chapter 19 & 20

Chapter 19- Web Pages

HTML: Hypertext markup language

- this is a language that people working with computers can all understand.  <b> means bold </b> means end bold.  They are symbols that encode for certain things.

Elements of a usable web site:

• accessibility- want the web site to be easy to navigate.  the keywords should stand out.
• worthwhile content- you want the information on the website to be accurate and up to date .  The information should be what the web site is about.
• sensible arrangement- users want to know where they are in the website. they should be able to go forward, backwards, home, in an easy manor.  They want the main point right when they get to the website instead of having to search for it.
• Good writing and page design- users want an easy to read writing style and they want the look of the page to be engaging.  They don't want it to be cluttered and hard to find what they are looking for. 
• Good graphics and special effects- some people are visual and look for images right away.  If this pertains to your web site, clear pictures should be added.  

Guidelines for creating a web site:

• identify the intended audience
• decide on the site's purpose
• decide on what the site will contain
• decide on the level of user interaction
• visit other sites for design ideas
• chunk your information
• design your pages to guide the user
• use graphics that download quickly
• make the content broadly accessible
• organize so that the user can follow the information flow
• provide orientation
• provide navigational aids
• sharpen the style
• show cultural sensitivity
• check your site
• test your site for usability
• attend to legal considerations
• maintain your site

Privacy issues in online communication- the information online is shareable to everyone

• troubleshooting- helps fix a computer, also gets rid of problems such as bugs
• productivity- this allows you to track intranet use.
• security- this allows you to know what your employees have been doing. it can open emails as well.

Chapter 20- Technical Definitions

Technical definitions tells the reader exactly what the meaning that your intending to use.  Always define a term first before you use it unless you are positive that the reader knows what it means.

The purpose of technical definitions is to tell what exactly is being talked about, and also what exactly it is.  When leasing an apartment, a contract will tell the responsibilities for both the lessee and the lessor.  It will specifically state an agreement and what it means.

Levels of detail in a definition

• Parenthetical definition- this is when you can state the meaning of a word by simply using a synonym.
• Sentence definition- this is used for more complex terms.  this can be done by giving the name of the item, the class to which it belongs, then the definition.
• Expanded definition- this is used when a more in depth definition is needed.  It can be a short paragraph, or a few pages.

Expansion Methods

• etymology- giving the words origin.  also you can state what stems mean to help figure out a word.  example: biology (bio- means life) so the study of life.
• history and background- sometimes a background discussion is necessary for those who want in depth information.
• negation- this states what the term does not mean
• operating principle- this states how the product operates correctly
• analysis of parts- this is used when explaining a technical concept.  they need to know the parts so that they understand the whole.
• Visuals- these help clarify definitions.  Always explain your visual. 
• comparison and contrast- this helps them understand the information they already know with new information
• required materials or conditions- this show tell if the item needs special materials or handling.
• example- these are a good way to help the reader understand what your talking about.

Situations Requiring Definitions- some situations require definitions for the reader to understand better.  The level of definition also needs to be carefully crafted because the viewers reading will have different levels of knowledge.

Placement of Definitions- each time a new word is introduced, the definition should follow closely.  Try not to put more than 3 or 4 definitions too close together because its disruptive.

Guideline for Defining Clearly and Precisely

• decide on the level of detail
• classify the item precisely
• differentiate the item accurately
• avoid circular definitions
• expand your definition selectively
• use visuals to clarify your meaning
• know "how much is enough"
• consider the legal implications of your definitions
• consider the ethical implications of your definition
• place your definition in an appropriate location

Chapter 17 & 18

Chapter 17- Workplace Letters

Letters are more appropriate in situations like these:

• to give a more personal feel
• to act like a representative of your company
• to respond to clients, customers
• to provide an official notice

Elements of usable letters

• Standard parts of letters
• heading and date
• inside address
• salutation
• body text
• complimentary closing
• signature
• Specialized parts of letters
• attention line (can replace salutation)
• subject line
• typist's initials
• enclosure notation
• distribution notation
• postscript
• Design features
• letter format
• word-processing templates
• quality stationary
• uniform margins and spacing
• headers for subsequent pages
• the envelope

Interpersonal considerations in workplace letters

• focus on the readers interest
• use plain English
• focus on the human connection
• anticipate the recipient's reaction
• decide on a direct or indirect organizing patter

Conveying bad news:

• don't procrastinate
• never just blurt it out
• give clear and honest explanation
• apologize if need be
• use passive voice
• don't use you to blame the reader
• keep it personal
• consider the format
• consider the medium

Inquiry letters

• don't wait until last minute
• write to a specific person
• make sure you ask the right questions
• keep the introduction short and to the point
• ask questions that are easy to understand and answer
• conclude by explaining how the information will be used
• don't forget the stamped, return-addressed envelope

Claim letters

• Use direct organization plan
• make your tone polite
• explain the problem
• conclude by expressing confidence in the company's integrity

 arguable claims

• use indirect organizing patterns
• once you have made an agreement, explain and support your claim
• conclude by requesting a specific action

adjustment letters

• begin with good news
• explain whats wrong and how it will be corrected
• never blame anyone
• do not promise the problem wont recur
• end on a positive note

refusing adjustments

• use indirect organizational plan
• be sure the refusal is unambiguous
• avoid a accusing tone
• close in a positive manor

Chapter 18-  Employment Correspondence

Employment outlook in the twenty-first century have more so relied on multiple employers and careers, work well with others, and to be able to adapt to change.

Prospecting for jobs

• assess your skills
• do you have leadership skills
• do you speak a different language
• do you have a musical/artistic talent
• do you communicate well
• are you a good listener
• can you perform under pressure
• have you done anything special
• research the job market
• don't wait for the job to come to you but be pro active
• you need to know what is available
• search online
• you can search worldwide
• you can focus on a region you want to work, or a job category
• learn to network
• make contacts
• it's all about who you know

Preparing your Resume

•   typical components of a resume
• contact information
• job objectives
• education
• work experience
• personal data
• personal interest, and skills
• references
• portfolio
• resumes from a template
• Organizing your resume
• you want to convey the strongest first impression of your qualifications, skills, and experiences so that you stand out.
• Resume guidlines
• begin your resume before you job search
• try to limit it to a single page 
• use good white paper
• stick to material that shows what you can offer
• don't make up things
• don't raise the topic of salary
• avoid complete sentences
• use action verbs and key words
• use punctuation to clarify
• proofread

Preparing your job application letter

•  solicited application letter
• introduction, body, and conclusion
• the unsolicited application letter
• needs to get the readers attention

Submitting electronic resumes

• use nouns as keywords, list skills, qualifications, and job titles
• list specialized skills
• list general skills
• list credentials and job titles
• keep the print simple
• avoid highlighing
• avoid two-column format
• do not fold or staple pages
• consider submitting two versions

Types of electronic resumes

• email
• ASCII 
• searchable

Protecting privacy and security when you post a resume online- if you have a job and you post a resume online then your current company could see and you could get fired.

Protect your good name online- be careful what you post on facebook, myspace, etc.

Support for the application- your dossier, portfolio, and job interview will answer the questions that the employer is looking for.

employment interviews- need to make a good impression! People don't excel when they do the following:

• need to know about the company
• dress inappropriately
• have no self-confidence
• only interested about salary and benefits
• speak negatively

The follow-up letter- send a thank you letter a day after the interview to reinforce a positive impression.  Try to connect with the reader.

Letters of acceptance or refusal

- when accepting, seem enthusiastic

- when declining, seem diplomatic

Chapter 16

Chapter 16- Memo Reports and Electronic Correspondence

Documents in hard-copy versus digital format- hard-copy last longer and sometimes are converted to electronic via email.  The paper document is said to be the standard for written communication.

Informational versus analytical reports- Informational reports describes what is being done now, what we found, what happened whereas a analytical report interprets the information.

Formal versus informal reports- Formal reports are long and informal reports are much shorter.  Short reports however, do give the information that the readers need.  Short reports can be more concise and be in the form of a memo.

Purpose of memo reports- Memos are a major form of communication in the work place.  Emails can be viewed as too informal whereas memos can be viewed as very effective.   Make sure when writing an memo, that it has the date and your initials or signature.

Elements of a usable memo- Memos need to be easy to scan, file and retrieve.  A usable memo usually focuses on one main point and is short and concise.

Interpersonal considerations in writing a memo- Some main questions that memos stater are: 

• What are we doing right, and how can it be better?
• What are we doing wrong, and how can we improve?
• Who's doing what, and when, and where?

When writing memos, make sure that these interpersonal mistakes are not done, or a coworker could be offended.

• Griping or complaining
• Being too critical or judgemental
• Sounding too formal or informal
• Using the wrong medium
• Being too bossy
• Not sending a copy to everyone who needs one

These mistakes can make a memos go very wrong.

Direct versus indirect organizing patterns-  direct patter is when you start with your main point, whereas indirect is where you tell details before you tell the main point.  Readers usually prefer the direct patter because they want to know the point.

Informational reports in memo form- 

• Progress reports- these are status reports to inform its viewers.
• Periodic activity reports- like a progress report but summarized activities over a specified time frame.
• Meeting minutes- this summarizes a meeting, and allow the viewers to recall what was discussed

Analytical report in memo form-

• Feasibility reports- discuss a problem and make decisions
• Recommendation reports- interpret data and draw conclusions
• Justification reports-these justify the writer's position by answering key questions

Electronic Mail (e-mail)- tend to be informal and conversational

• benefits
• lack of real-time constraints
• efficient filing, retrieval, and forwarding
• attachments
• democratic communications
• creative thinking
• collaboration and research
• email copyright issues-  when forwarding a message it is a violation of the owner's copyright, therefore be careful when doing so.
• email privacy issues- make sure that the right people get the intended email.

Instant Messaging- this is a faster way of communication than emailing.  This allows two people to talk instantly and have a conversation via text.

Corporate blogs and wikis- can serve as a opinion based chatroom, or as a source for acquiring useful information.

• internal blogs- can provide an alternative from email
• wiki is a type of blog and can be used as a collaboration of many peoples work
• external blog- these can be used when you want customer feedback
• ethical, legal, and privacy issues- readers need to be able to trust the information therefore it must be accurate.  Make sure when forwarding an email that credit is due where it needs to be.

Chapter 14 & 15

Chapter 14- Designing Visual Information 

Visuals make data easier to understand and remember.  They shows a different view of the information than just plain text.

When creating a visual, ask yourself the following questions:

• Which information is most important?
• Where should the focus be?
• What do the number mean?
• What does it look like?
• How should it be organized?
• How does it work?

Visuals show the big picture.  Graphs can show a visual that a list of numbers wouldn't do.

Use visuals when the information would be more clear through a picture/graph.

Types of visuals:

• Tables (numerical and prose)
• Graphs (bar and line)
• Charts (pie, organization, flowcharts, gantt charts, tree charts, pictograms)
• Graphic illustrations (representational diagrams, symbols and icons, cutaway diagrams, schematic diagrams, maps, photographs, exploded diagrams, visualization)

When selecting visuals, answer these questions for the most effective use:

• What is my purpose? 
• facts and figures-table, graph, chart
• show parts of an object- exploded or cutaway diagram
• directions- diagram
• relationships- flow chart or graph
• Who is my audience?
• expert audience- numerical tables, flowcharts, schematics, complex graphs
• general audience- basic tables, graphs, diagrams, other visuals
• cultural differences may come into play
• What form of information will be most effective?
• what is the message best conveyed by
• what will the audience have the easiest time understanding and following

Tables: 

• quantitative information- numerical tables
• qualitative information- prose tables
• don't make overly complex can cause information overload

Graphs:

• Translate numbers into visuals
• horizontal axis shows categories (independent variable)
• vertical axis shows the range of values (dependent variable)

•  Bar graphs
• simple bar graph
• multiple bar graph
• horizontal bar graph
• stacked bar graph
• 100 percent bar graph
• deviation bar graph
• 3-d bar graph

• Line graphs
• simple line graph
• multiline graph
• deviation line graph
• band or area graph
• multiple band graph

Charts

• pie chart
• organization charts
• gantt and pert charts
• pictograms

Graphic Illustrations

• diagrams
• maps

Photographs

Software and downloadable images

• using the software
• using symbols and icons
• using web sites for graphic support

Using Color

• Makes the information more engaging and interesting. Color can help emphasize a certain point and help guide the readers through the information.

Ethical Considerations- even though the data could be accurate, the visuals could be misleading, therefore make sure that you present the real, complete picture.  You shouldn't distort the information for emphasis.
 

Cultural Considerations- not all cultures read from left to right, therefore know your audience

Chapter 15- Designing Pages and Documents

Page design determines the look of the document which is very important.

Page design in workplace documents:

• People have to read work-related document, so why not make the document engaging so that people will have an easier time remembering the information.

How Page Design Transforms a Document:

• design cues are important so that the reader has a way of chunking information.

Design Skills Needed in Today's Workplace

• Desktop publishing
• Electronic publishing
• Using style sheets and company style guides

Creating a Usable Design

• Shaping the page- the look and feel of the document, and remember that white space is not a bad thing.  Margins can also be used to help create design.

Using typography Effectively

•  typography- the art of type styling (font)
• Select a font that is easy to read and follow
• use bold, underlining, and italics in the right place
• use caps sparingly and only when needed

Using Heading for Access and Orientation

• use headings to break up the information

Audience Considerations in Page Design

• Know the audience and their purpose for reading the document
• If  your document is for reference make sure that the information is easily located
• If your document is direction or a list make sure the sequence is in the correct order
• If their are warnings, make sure that they are emphasized

Designing On-Screen Documents

• Web pages- each page stands alone therefore make sure each page has its own meaning.
• Make sure the main point is displayed
• Online help- needs to be easy to use
• Adobe Acrobat and PDF files- they look the same on the screen as they do if they are in text.
• Cds and other media- be aware of all the ways that your document could be viewed

Chapter 12 & 13

Chapter 12- Organizing for Users

Partitioning and Classifying are used to categorize things.  

• Partitioning separates the information into part, and deals with one thing only
• Classification assorts information that share similarities and deals with an assortment of things

Outlining

•  Framework for the report
• A good and quicker way to let readers know point by point
• Basic shape
• introduction, body, conclusion

• Formal outline covers the entire report (alphanumeric notation)
• In technical documents (decimal notation)
• Organizing for Cross-Culture Audiences
• British start with bad news whereas we take the indirect approach.

Storyboarding 

• Sketch of the finished document
• very visual
• can rearrange, delete, and insert material as needed
• whiteboards, posterboards, or flip charts

Paragraphing

• introduction, conclusion, transition
• support paragraphs
• relate to main point
• explanation
• introduction 1st sentence (topic sentence), body 2-6, and conclusion 7-8.
• topic sentence 
• main idea
• should appear first
• paragraph unity
• stay on topic and make sure every sentence flows
• paragraph coherence 
• every sentence ties together nicely
• don't want short choppy sentences, sentences in wrong order, bad transitions, and a line of reasons that the readers can't follow
• Chronological sequence
• follows sequence of events, first step, second step, etc.
• Effect-to-cause sequence
• identify problem, then state its causes and explain how/why it happened
• Cause-to-effect sequence
• action to its results
• Emphatic sequence
• make the important things stand out
• Problem-causes-solution sequence
• problem is stated, then the causes of that problem, then what was done for the solution
• it explains how the problem was solved
• Comparison-contrast sequence
• similarities and differences

Chunking 

• break down information into units
• shows what information goes together
• can visually chunk

Creating an Overview 

• preview of the document answering questions that viewers have immediately
• what is the purpose?
• why should I read it?
• what information can I expect to find?

• shows what the document is all about and shows the big picture

Chapter 13- Editing for Readable Style 

Your document should be readable.  The information you have to say is just as important as how you say it.  The style of your document is determined by:

• the way in which you write each sentence
• the lenght of those sentences
• the connection of sentences
• the words and phrases you choose
• the tone you have

Inefficient style makes the reader work harder to understand the document than they should.  Some ways the style can be inefficient are:

• writting hard to interpret
• takes too long to get the point across
• use big words that are not neccessary 
• sound impersonal

Editing for clarity

Avoid ambiguous pronoun references

• example: our patients enjoy the warm days while they last
• (who is they?) are the patients or the warm days on the way out? 

Avoid ambiguous modifiers (words that provide information about other words)

• Example:  Only press the red button in an emergency. (does only modify press or emergency?
• press only the red button in an emergency or press the red button in an emergency only.

Unstack Modifying Nouns (too many nouns in a row)

• Example: Be sure to leave enough time for a training session participant evaluation. (evaluation of the session or of the participants?)
• Be sure to leave enough time for participants to evaluate the training session.

Arrange word order for coherence and emphasis

• Sentences work well when the beginning looks back and the familiar information and the end provides new information. 
• Example: We expect a refund because of your error in our shipment
• Because of your error in our shipment, we expect a refund.
• When commanding something, start with the key word first.
• Example: Remove the protective seal.

Use Active Voice whenever possible

• Example: I did it. rather than a passive voice, it was done by me.
• Active voice is less wordy and readers can learn faster.
• Use active voice when you want action, or give instructions
• Don't switch from active to passive in the same sentence.

Use Passive voice selectively

• Use when your audience doesn't need to know the agent or when the agent is unknown.
• Passive voice is used when you want to be indirect or inoffensive.
• Example: You have not paid your bill. (active and offensive)
• The bill has not been paid.

Avoid overstuffed sentences

• Senteces need to be simple and only contain the information that is neccessary. 

 Editing for Conciseness

Concise writing tells the most information in the fewest words.

Avoid wordy phrases

• due to the fact that = because
• the majority of = most
• a large number = most

Eliminate Redundancy

• Repeating yourself
• Examples: end result, enter into, the month of January

Avoid needless repetition

• Takes away from the meaning

Avoid there and it sentence openers

• unclear

Delete Needless prefaces

• get to the point

Avoid weak verbs

• use words that state a definite action (open, close, move) and not ones that express no action (was, are, has).

Avoid Excessive Preposition

• with the exception of = except for
• in the near future = soon

Fight noun addiction

• nouns that come from verbs are hard to understand than just using the verb itself.
• Example: We ask for the cooperation of all employees.  We ask that all employees cooperate.

Make Negatives Positive

• Make a negative expression positive
• Example: please do not be late in submitting your report.
• Please submit your report on time.

Clean out clutter words

• examples of clutter words: very, definitely, quite, extremely, rather, really, etc.
• the stretch the message without adding meaning to it.

Delete Needless Qualifiers

• example of qualifiers: I feel, it seems, I believe, in my opinion, etc.

Editing for Fluency     

Your writing should be fluent so that it is easy to read and it is clear.

Combining related ideas, having sentence constructions and length vary, and using short sentences for special emphasis are all ways in making a document fluent.

Finding the Exact Words

People tend to hind behind language by doing the following:

• speak for the company but not for themselves
• worry about making a bad impression
• worry about being wrong
• pretend to know more than they do

Prefer simple and familiar wording

• demnostate = show
• frequently = often
• utilize = use

Avoid Useless Jargon

• not everyone will know what it means

Use Acronyms Selectively

• Audience needs to know what they mean

Avoid Triteness

• Using worn out phrases that make the writer seem carless
• Example:not by a long shot

Avoid understatement and overstatement

• exaggerating is misleading

Avoid imprecise wording

• synonyms meaning slightly different meanings

Be specific and concrete

• The more specific your words the better understanding the reader will have.
• Don't use abstract terms for concrete terms.

Adjusting Your Tone

• Your tone is your personality in the document.  The tone is created by the distance between you and your readers, and the attitude you show.
• Deciding about the tone
• use a formal or semiformal tone
• use a semiformal or informal tone
• use an informal tone
• avoid negative tone
• use the tone that will appeal to you audience

Consider using an occasional contraction

• Unless your being formal, an occasional contraction is a nice balance.

Address Readers Directly

• use pronouns like you so that the readers can relate and feel connected.

Use I and We when appropriate and Use Active Voice

• The readers can relate more and the document doesn't seem as distant.

Emphasize the Positive

• Emphasize benefits instead of flaws

Avoid an Overly Informal Tone

• Don't make the tone too informal
• Tone can be offensive

Avoid Personal Bias and Sexist Usage

• use neutral expressions

Avoid Offensive Usage of All Types

• Be specific
• avoid judgmental expressions
• avoid expressions that demean
• use age-appropriate designations

Considering the Cultural Context

This has applied to English.  Other countries tend to be more formal and use lengthy writing.

Legal and Ethical Implications of Word Choice

Many violations can occur by poor word choice.  We are responsible for the words we choose, therefore choose wisely.  Some situations that require care in word choice are:

• assessing risk
• offering a service or product
• giving instructions
• comparing your product with competing products
• evaluating an employee

Using Automated Editing Tools Effectively 

• The computer can not solve all grammar and spelling problems.  Sometimes words are spelled correctly, but used incorrectly
• Use tools wisely and don't rely on the computer for editing your document completely.

Chapter 10 & 11

Chapter 10:  Evaluating and Interpreting Information

All information is not equal.  When you find research, some questions should be:

                How dependable are the sources?

                How convincing is the evidence?

                What do the findings mean?

                Where are the weak spots?

Evaluate the Sources

• ·         Determine the currency of the source

             (The most recent isn’t always the most reliable- scientific research)

• ·         Assess the reputation of a printed source

             (Is the source dependable?)

• ·         Assess the dependability of an internet or database source

             (Is the source trustworthy?)

• ·         Consider the sponsorship and the motives for the study.

             (Why is the study being done, who is sponsoring the study, what is their reasoning for sponsoring it)

• ·         Cross-check the source against other similar sources

            (Compare and contrast the same information through different sources)

Guidelines for Evaluating Sources on the Web 

•    Sites domain:

                        .com- business/commercial organizations

                        .edu- educational institution

                        .gov- government organization

                        .mil- military organization

                        .net- anyone with simple software and internet access

                        .org- nonprofit organization

• ·         Purpose of the site

• ·         Look beyond the style
• ·         Assess the currency
• ·         Assess authors credentials
• ·         Decide whether the information makes sense
• ·         Compare the site with other sources
• ·         Look for quality

o   Worthwhile content

o   Organization

o   Readable

o   Expertise

o   Peer review

o   Up-to-date links

o   Follow-up options

Evaluate the Evidence

                This is very important because many times evidence is chosen to support a particular claim therefore deceiving the whole truth.  

• ·         Determining the sufficiency of the evidence (is there enough evidence)
• ·         Differentiate hard from soft evidence (hard-facts soft-opinions)
• ·         Balanced and Reasonable (exaggerations, too good to be true, vital facts omitted)
• ·         How the facts are framed (Glass half empty or half full, 90-percent survival rate, 10-percent mortality rate)

Interpret your findings –know your certainty

• ·         The ultimate truth- the conclusive answer-all who investigate in agreement
• ·         The probable answer- best decision at the time with all that’s known
•          Inconclusive answer- the truth is more ambiguous than expected

Examine the underlying assumptions

• ·         We think things to be true without proof.
• ·         Assumptions may alter research validity

Personal Bias

• ·         Our own views come into play sometimes without knowing
• ·         Sometimes we rationalize instead of reason

Other interpretations

• ·         Know another way people might view the work.
• ·         What else can your research imply

Avoiding Error

• ·         Faulty Generalization- jump from one or more observations to a distinct conclusion.  Overstated generalization can be an exaggeration.
• ·         Faulty causal reasoning- You should be sure readers can draw conclusions that are similar to your own.  You don’t want to ignore other causes or effects than the ones in your reasoning. 
• ·         Faulty statistical reasoning- numbers can be misleading, graphs can also be misleading.  Numbers can be manipulated, the average can vary (mean median mode) percentages can seem high or low due to sample size.  Rankings can be misleading and correlation and causation can be confused.

Research

• ·         Validity- correct findings, a survey should measure what it’s expected to measure, measure accurately and precisely and the finding from the survey can be generalized to the target population.
• ·         Reliability- can be replicated, a survey’s results are consistent

• ·         Flaws-

o   Epidemiological-sampling techniques

o   Laboratory studies-limitations

o   Human exposure studies- non- representative of general public

• ·         Measurement Errors
• ·         Deceptive Reporting

Guidelines for evaluating and Interpreting Information

• ·         Check the publication date
• ·         Know the reputation of the source
• ·         Check the quality
• ·         Know the sponsor
• ·         Determine whether the evidence is sufficient
• ·         Examine assumptions
• ·         Identify personal biases
• ·         Consider alternate interpretations
• ·         Supports all generalizations?
• ·         Look for statistical fallacies
• ·         Look for misleading info
• ·         Look for the whole story

Chapter 11: Summarizing and Abstracting Information

Summaries briefly explain the detailed work.  They tell the essential message without having to take time to read the entire piece in depth.

Users expect a summary to be accurate, complete, readable, concise and without a technical style.  Summaries should be easy and quick to read.

When summarizing others information, one should read the entire original to know what you’re trying to sum up.  Reread the original and know the essential material.  Edit the information and rewrite in your own words.  Edit your work and check it with the original.  And finally make sure that the summary your write is relaying the message of the original.

• ·         Closing summary appears at the end of a report’s conclusion section and it summarizes the gist of the entire report.

• ·         Informative abstracts are condensed versions of report.  This allows viewers to get an idea of what the report is about before having to read it entirely.  

• ·         Descriptive abstract just introduces the report without saying the main points.  This type of summary allows people if they want to read the report or not.

• ·         Executive abstract have a persuasive feel.  They cover the points, what did you find? What does it mean? And what should be done?

Ethical considerations: whoever is summarizing the piece of work ultimately chooses what they want to leave out and emphasize.  This can be unethical because they could be leaving out essential points.  Also sometimes summaries can be seen as plagiarism even though that’s not their intent.  There can also be summaries that don’t capture the real story and are misleading to the original piece of work.

Therefore, when writing a summary try to make it as accurate and precise to the original work as possible, without leaving out important details.