Chapter 12 & 13

Chapter 12- Organizing for Users

Partitioning and Classifying are used to categorize things.  

• Partitioning separates the information into part, and deals with one thing only
• Classification assorts information that share similarities and deals with an assortment of things

Outlining

•  Framework for the report
• A good and quicker way to let readers know point by point
• Basic shape
• introduction, body, conclusion

• Formal outline covers the entire report (alphanumeric notation)
• In technical documents (decimal notation)
• Organizing for Cross-Culture Audiences
• British start with bad news whereas we take the indirect approach.

Storyboarding 

• Sketch of the finished document
• very visual
• can rearrange, delete, and insert material as needed
• whiteboards, posterboards, or flip charts

Paragraphing

• introduction, conclusion, transition
• support paragraphs
• relate to main point
• explanation
• introduction 1st sentence (topic sentence), body 2-6, and conclusion 7-8.
• topic sentence 
• main idea
• should appear first
• paragraph unity
• stay on topic and make sure every sentence flows
• paragraph coherence 
• every sentence ties together nicely
• don't want short choppy sentences, sentences in wrong order, bad transitions, and a line of reasons that the readers can't follow
• Chronological sequence
• follows sequence of events, first step, second step, etc.
• Effect-to-cause sequence
• identify problem, then state its causes and explain how/why it happened
• Cause-to-effect sequence
• action to its results
• Emphatic sequence
• make the important things stand out
• Problem-causes-solution sequence
• problem is stated, then the causes of that problem, then what was done for the solution
• it explains how the problem was solved
• Comparison-contrast sequence
• similarities and differences

Chunking 

• break down information into units
• shows what information goes together
• can visually chunk

Creating an Overview 

• preview of the document answering questions that viewers have immediately
• what is the purpose?
• why should I read it?
• what information can I expect to find?

• shows what the document is all about and shows the big picture

Chapter 13- Editing for Readable Style 

Your document should be readable.  The information you have to say is just as important as how you say it.  The style of your document is determined by:

• the way in which you write each sentence
• the lenght of those sentences
• the connection of sentences
• the words and phrases you choose
• the tone you have

Inefficient style makes the reader work harder to understand the document than they should.  Some ways the style can be inefficient are:

• writting hard to interpret
• takes too long to get the point across
• use big words that are not neccessary 
• sound impersonal

Editing for clarity

Avoid ambiguous pronoun references

• example: our patients enjoy the warm days while they last
• (who is they?) are the patients or the warm days on the way out? 

Avoid ambiguous modifiers (words that provide information about other words)

• Example:  Only press the red button in an emergency. (does only modify press or emergency?
• press only the red button in an emergency or press the red button in an emergency only.

Unstack Modifying Nouns (too many nouns in a row)

• Example: Be sure to leave enough time for a training session participant evaluation. (evaluation of the session or of the participants?)
• Be sure to leave enough time for participants to evaluate the training session.

Arrange word order for coherence and emphasis

• Sentences work well when the beginning looks back and the familiar information and the end provides new information. 
• Example: We expect a refund because of your error in our shipment
• Because of your error in our shipment, we expect a refund.
• When commanding something, start with the key word first.
• Example: Remove the protective seal.

Use Active Voice whenever possible

• Example: I did it. rather than a passive voice, it was done by me.
• Active voice is less wordy and readers can learn faster.
• Use active voice when you want action, or give instructions
• Don't switch from active to passive in the same sentence.

Use Passive voice selectively

• Use when your audience doesn't need to know the agent or when the agent is unknown.
• Passive voice is used when you want to be indirect or inoffensive.
• Example: You have not paid your bill. (active and offensive)
• The bill has not been paid.

Avoid overstuffed sentences

• Senteces need to be simple and only contain the information that is neccessary. 

 Editing for Conciseness

Concise writing tells the most information in the fewest words.

Avoid wordy phrases

• due to the fact that = because
• the majority of = most
• a large number = most

Eliminate Redundancy

• Repeating yourself
• Examples: end result, enter into, the month of January

Avoid needless repetition

• Takes away from the meaning

Avoid there and it sentence openers

• unclear

Delete Needless prefaces

• get to the point

Avoid weak verbs

• use words that state a definite action (open, close, move) and not ones that express no action (was, are, has).

Avoid Excessive Preposition

• with the exception of = except for
• in the near future = soon

Fight noun addiction

• nouns that come from verbs are hard to understand than just using the verb itself.
• Example: We ask for the cooperation of all employees.  We ask that all employees cooperate.

Make Negatives Positive

• Make a negative expression positive
• Example: please do not be late in submitting your report.
• Please submit your report on time.

Clean out clutter words

• examples of clutter words: very, definitely, quite, extremely, rather, really, etc.
• the stretch the message without adding meaning to it.

Delete Needless Qualifiers

• example of qualifiers: I feel, it seems, I believe, in my opinion, etc.

Editing for Fluency     

Your writing should be fluent so that it is easy to read and it is clear.

Combining related ideas, having sentence constructions and length vary, and using short sentences for special emphasis are all ways in making a document fluent.

Finding the Exact Words

People tend to hind behind language by doing the following:

• speak for the company but not for themselves
• worry about making a bad impression
• worry about being wrong
• pretend to know more than they do

Prefer simple and familiar wording

• demnostate = show
• frequently = often
• utilize = use

Avoid Useless Jargon

• not everyone will know what it means

Use Acronyms Selectively

• Audience needs to know what they mean

Avoid Triteness

• Using worn out phrases that make the writer seem carless
• Example:not by a long shot

Avoid understatement and overstatement

• exaggerating is misleading

Avoid imprecise wording

• synonyms meaning slightly different meanings

Be specific and concrete

• The more specific your words the better understanding the reader will have.
• Don't use abstract terms for concrete terms.

Adjusting Your Tone

• Your tone is your personality in the document.  The tone is created by the distance between you and your readers, and the attitude you show.
• Deciding about the tone
• use a formal or semiformal tone
• use a semiformal or informal tone
• use an informal tone
• avoid negative tone
• use the tone that will appeal to you audience

Consider using an occasional contraction

• Unless your being formal, an occasional contraction is a nice balance.

Address Readers Directly

• use pronouns like you so that the readers can relate and feel connected.

Use I and We when appropriate and Use Active Voice

• The readers can relate more and the document doesn't seem as distant.

Emphasize the Positive

• Emphasize benefits instead of flaws

Avoid an Overly Informal Tone

• Don't make the tone too informal
• Tone can be offensive

Avoid Personal Bias and Sexist Usage

• use neutral expressions

Avoid Offensive Usage of All Types

• Be specific
• avoid judgmental expressions
• avoid expressions that demean
• use age-appropriate designations

Considering the Cultural Context

This has applied to English.  Other countries tend to be more formal and use lengthy writing.

Legal and Ethical Implications of Word Choice

Many violations can occur by poor word choice.  We are responsible for the words we choose, therefore choose wisely.  Some situations that require care in word choice are:

• assessing risk
• offering a service or product
• giving instructions
• comparing your product with competing products
• evaluating an employee

Using Automated Editing Tools Effectively 

• The computer can not solve all grammar and spelling problems.  Sometimes words are spelled correctly, but used incorrectly
• Use tools wisely and don't rely on the computer for editing your document completely.